{"id":65,"date":"2014-05-03T09:22:13","date_gmt":"2014-05-03T09:22:13","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/lindsay.mengel.com.au\/?p=65"},"modified":"2014-05-03T09:35:58","modified_gmt":"2014-05-03T09:35:58","slug":"cultural-uniqueness-or-uniformity","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/lindsay.mengel.com.au\/?p=65","title":{"rendered":"Cultural Uniqueness or Uniformity?"},"content":{"rendered":"

The tourism and hospitality industry\u2019s major dilemma in the 21st Century is their movement away from cultural uniqueness to more homogenised destinations.<\/em><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

This homogenisation is influenced by the process of society becoming globalised and industry professionals seeing the opportunities homogenised locations bring to their countries, however, with this homogenisation of culture comes the obvious effects of locations becoming increasingly similar reducing tourist numbers due to reduced variety in destinations. The tourism and hospitality industry hence needs to retain the number of culturally unique destinations while also promoting homogenised destinations to cater to the variety of potential tourists.<\/p>\n

WHAT IS TOURISM?<\/strong><\/p>\n

Tourism is the theory or practised of travelling for pleasure, business or for any other reason for less than a year (Simpson & Weiner, 1989:306). Tourism is a commodity and every country regardless of wealth has something to offer, whether it be traditional and modern culture, heritage or natural sites (Conrad, 2005:22-33). It can develop countries by creating employment opportunities, stimulating small businesses and the economy and reducing poverty (Conrad, 2005:22-33). Hilary du Cros (2009:76) agrees in \u201cEmerging Issues for Cultural Tourism in Macau\u201d as, \u201ccultural tourist attractions are a major part of China\u2019s appeal for international tourists and key to its appeal for domestic tourists…\u201d and \u201c…also brings much needed revenue to relatively undeveloped areas with only intangible heritage assets…\u201d In a report on “A New Tourism Scenario – Key Future Trends,” (In:Ivanovic, 2009) Auliana Poon of Tourism Intelligence International identified destination trends appearing in the industry, these can be summarised with tourists are \u201c…moving away from products towards experiences,\u201d they are generally aiming to, \u201c…spend time in one place instead of moving around…\u201d and are looking for areas rich in activities where it is easy to integrate with the local community…\u201d (In: Ivanovic, 2009). The tourism and hospitality industries movement away then from unique cultural tourism to homogenised cultural tourism seems ill advised.<\/p>\n

WHAT IS A CULTURALLY UNIQUE DESTINATION?<\/strong><\/p>\n

A culturally unique destination for cultural tourism is a destination which lacks the experiences a general member of society would or could participate in (Ivanovic, 2009:122-123). Cultural tourism wide range of destinations and cultural activities fall under the umbrella heading of cultural tourism: visits to UNESCO World Heritage Sites, tours of historic cities, architectural sites, cathedrals, and battlefields; museums; trips to sample typical regional foods; tours of ethnic neighbourhoods; local music festivals and cultural performances; visits to indigenous villages or distinctive cultural landscapes (du Cros, 2009:74). Culture is the behaviour and beliefs characteristics of a social, ethnic or age group defined over time (Ivanovic, 2009:125). Culture in tourism creates an authenticity and distinctiveness in the global tourism market, separating one location from another (Hollands, 2010:354) and is attractive to tourists as it is different to their own culture (Lietaer, 2003). For example, cultural tourism allows westerners to travel to Asian cultures to experience the true aspects of the country\u2019s culture (du Cros, 2009: 75).<\/p>\n

HOW IS GLOBALISATION AFFECTING CULTURE?<\/strong><\/p>\n

Globalisation refers to the increasing global relationships of culture, people and their economies. Globalisation has made destinations around the world more accessible than ever to tourists, however, a smaller world is not necessarily a boon to the cultures which occupy it (Lietaer, 2003). Many major power on the world stage specifically the United States (US), have very strong cultures and economies driving them, which has led to a cultural colonisation\/ coca-colonization\/or commodification of poorer nations, the invasion of products and culture into local cultures (Ivanovic, 2009:125)(du Cros, 2009:78). For example, the movie industry of Western countries is dominated by the US to the extent that 90% of movies viewed in Western countries were created in the US (Ivanovic, 2009:122). This obviously reduces the \u2018uniqueness\u2019 off these destinations, for example, a tourist, can get a can of coke from a vending machine or stay in a hotel in the plains of Mongolia two things the tourist could have done in his local area. This pursuit of profit framework of tourism, impedes its long term success (Ivanovic, 2009:125). Lietaer (2003 indicates that many major tourist destinations have damaged cultural uniqueness due to economic development through tourism, such as, \u201c…Mexico, the Caribbean, Hawaii, Tahiti, Fiji and other Pacific Islands…\u201d (Lietaer, 2003). Ivanovic agrees but also argues that the commodification of culture leads to staged authenticity which is a loss of authenticity thus losing tourist who desire an authentic experience (2009:121). Cohen (1988) and Conrad (2005) argues that this form of \u2018tick box\u2019 or leisure tourism are both beneficial and negative to tourism destinations. They argue that Asian countries are becoming more westernized due to this commodification of culture (Cohen, 1988) (Conrad, 2005) but is bringing significant revenue and employment (Conrad, 2005). Tourist destinations in these countries are being expanded, however, this is causing cultural areas to suffer and are causing them to slowly disappear; tourists are travelling to the country but are not experiencing the culture. Ivanovic (2009) argues that this homogenisation of culture will mean there will be little point in travelling to destinations for the experiences, as the experiences would be the same if they walked outside in their local neighbourhood.
\n
\nRECOMMENDATIONS<\/strong><\/p>\n

Baku in Azerbaijan is a prime example of utilising the \u2018tick-box\u2019 or leisure tourism to its advantage. Rather than utilising culture as a focal point for tourism, Baku considers culture a basic axiom or a \u201c…given element of \u2018added value\u2019…\u201d(Baumer,2003:14). It has become more modern and westernized to meet the trends set by western countries and cultures that dominate sections of the tourism market. Baku has been marketed as an almost indistinguishable yet far cheaper place from any Caspian or Mediterranean city. There are obviously still the historical sites, but most tourism sites, private and government run, promote the hotels, water parks and city life of Baku instead (Baumer, 2003).<\/p>\n

Bernard Lietaer (2003) believes, \u201cit is generally accepted that massive tourism and a vibrant indigenous culture are mutually exclusive.\u201d however, Bali has so far proven to be an exception to this rule. Bali is an example of cultural tourism and leisure tourism being combined in an effective manner. Lietaer (2003) argues that the increasing numbers of tourists tend to ultimately destroy the exotic culture they came to experience in the first place, as the locals increasingly display their culture only for the tourists\u2019 money.\u201d but indicates that \u201c…tourism has not destroyed Balinese culture\u201d as it did in so many other places (Norohna, 1979; Macnaught, 1982; McTaggart, 1980; Cohen, 1988; Picard, 1996). Margaret Mead believes this is because Indonesia is historically, \u201c…accustomed to an alien aristocracy, accustomed to successive waves of Hinduism, Buddhism, and so on…\u201d they, \u201c…let what is alien flow over their heads.\u201d(Mead, 1977). Picard observed that \u201cThe newly available consumer goods have not dethroned ceremonial expenses as a source of prestige and sign of status: the money earned from tourism feeds a competition for status that is expressed in the staging of ever more sumptuous and spectacular ceremonies \u2013 much to the delight of the tourists.\u201d(Picard, 1996). Bali in 2001 had approximately four million visitors to the population of three million, however, the tourists are often overwhelmed by the vibrant pageantry of the thousands of religious festivals and other cultural events organized every year by the Balinese for the entertainment of the Balinese gods and themselves (Lietaer, 2003). Lietaer (2003), Clifford Geertz (1975) and Carol Warren (1993) suggest Bali has two key features which has retained its cultural uniqueness even under the pressure of globalisation. Firstly, the traditional Balinese organisational structures within local areas which promote daily cultural ritual and, secondly, a duel currency system. Lietaer explains that one of these currencies, the normal Indonesian national currency, cannot be created within the community but has to be earned by competing in the outside world, tourism, while the other is Time which everybody generates within the community, on an egalitarian basis, and generates cooperation (2003). Thus to prevent cultural degradation and to retain cultural uniqueness a system of cultural autonomy, good local governance and a duel currency system may succeed, as proven by Bali\u2019s continual success in the tourism and hospitality industry.<\/p>\n

Jamaica has attempted to present their country not just as a tourism spot but as a country with a rich multiracial history and environment not found anywhere else in the world. Alan Robinson believes Jamaica has succeeded in this regard, as he argues that Jamaican tourism and hospitality developers understand that Jamaica is more than just a pretty location for a hotel (1995:6). Frank Rance, one of the primary developers of Jamaica\u2019s tourism and hospitality sector said that there are many places that put tourists directly into the Jamaican culture such as Braco, \u201c”…a typical Jamaican village, where vacationers can experience the sights, sounds and smells of village life; watch cigars being rolled, hear reggae music, learn about the culture then go off to their luxurious rooms or their villas to relax.”(In: Robinson, 1995:63). Jamaica understands that Tourism is their most important financial sector, it brings in, \u201c…45% of all foreign exchange and, directly and indirectly, employs 217,000 people…\u201d (In: Robinson, 1995:64). Similarly, they also recognise the importance of culture in creating a unique tourism experience, hence development of purely \u201cbeachfront tourism locations\u201d are minimum and discouraged by the Jamaican government (Robinson, 1995:64).<\/p>\n

Hollands (2010:380), Altman (1980:116-117) and St John (2000:6-7) suggests an alternative to cultural tourism, \u2018alternative cultural tourism\u2019: culture that consists of, \u201c\u2018all those aspects of apparent non-mainstream social activity and consciousness that seem to prefigure a radically different type of social system\u201d(Altman, 1980:116-117) or, \u201ca diverse network of discourse and practice oppositional to perceived deficiencies in the parent culture, which is the system of values, beliefs and practices hegemonic under modernity\u2019, and which, for him, includes various social movements, new spiritualities, and youth subcultures.\u201d (St John, 2000:6-7). This form of alternative cultural tourism tackles one of the main problems with classical cultural tourism, according to Hollands, the lack of distinguishing sociologically, \u201c…between different kinds of tourist experiences.\u201d(2010:390). Hollands (2010:389) believes it is fair to argue that underneath the apparent \u201cvariety\u201d of tourist experiences and niches there is an overall lack of diversity, creativity and authenticity, a view shared by Ivanovic (2009). Hollands adds that, additionally, alternative cultural tourism, \u201c…helps create new identities and socially include[s] local communities…\u201d which is imperatively, \u201c…important in even \u2018successful\u2019 cities like Prague where conventional forms of tourism can alienate local communities, by either excluding them or by prioritising the city for tourists only (2010:390).<\/p>\n

CONCLUSIONS<\/strong><\/p>\n

Globalisation is encouraging a move away from cultural uniqueness to cultural homogenisation in the tourism and hospitality industries. The lack of uniqueness and authenticity will eventually decrease the popularity of travelling as it erodes a foundation of tourism and hospitality, that of exploration and new experience. The complete ignorance of leisure or \u2018tick box\u2019 tourism, however, is not viable as doing so would ignore a portion of the tourism demography. Thus the logical and proven solution is to encourage a mixed model of cultural tourism to ensure uniqueness of destination, such as in Bali and Jamaica. There is also the often overlooked option of alternative cultural tourism, that which presents non-mainstream groups and festivities, which socially includes local communities and creates new identities or cultures, cultures within cultures, which could arguably indefinitely ensure continued uniqueness of destination. Prideaux, Timothy & Chon (2008) are correct in their argument that one of the greatest dilemmas facing the tourism and hospitality industry in the 21st Century is the loss of uniqueness of destination due to globalisation\u2019s promotion of uniformity over diversity, however, ignorance of the possibilities uniformity brings to certain destinations is injudicious. Globally, tourism and hospitality operators should simply suitably respond contextually to their location, to ensure uniqueness, uniformity or both concurrently.<\/p>\n

REFERENCES<\/strong><\/p>\n

Altman, D. (1980). Rehearsals for Change: Politics and Culture in Australia, Melbourne: Fontana. pp116-117.<\/p>\n

Baumer, Markus. (2003). \u201cBaku – Azerbaijan a Proposal of Cultural Strategy\u201d, Cultural Policy and Action Department, Baku. Retrieved April 20, 2012, from http:\/\/www.coe.int\/t\/dg4\/cultureheritage\/culture\/Completed\/STAGE\/DGIV_CULT_STAGE%282003%299_EN_rev.pdf.<\/p>\n

Caspian Dreamers \u201cBaku State of Mind\u201d. (Online). Retrieved on April 20, 2012, from: http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f4-U6TGX1T4<\/p>\n

Cohen E. (1988) \u201cAuthenticity and Commoditization in Tourism\u201d, Annals of Tourism
\nResearch Vol 15 (3), pp. 371-386.<\/p>\n

Conrad, D. & Barreto, E. (2005). “Redefining Tourism”, International Trade Forum, , no. 2, pp. 22-23.<\/p>\n

du Cros, H. ( 2009 ). Emerging Issues for Cultural Tourism in Macau. Journal Of Current Chinese Affairs,Vol 38(1), 73-99. Retrieved April 22, 2012, from http:\/\/hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de\/giga\/jcca\/article\/view\/14\/14<\/p>\n

Geertz H. & Geertz C. (1975), \u201cKinship in Bali\u201d, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.<\/p>\n

Hollands. Robert G. (2010). \u201cEngaging and Alternative Cultural Tourism?\u201d, Journal of Cultural Economy, Vol. 3(3), pp350-393.<\/p>\n

Ivanovic, M. (2009) \u201cCultural Tourism\u201d, Juta & Company Ltd, Cape Town, pp. 120-150.<\/p>\n

Prideaux, B., Timothy, D., & Chon, K. (Eds.). (2008). Cultural and heritage tourism in Asia and the Pacific. New York: Routledge.<\/p>\n

Lietaer, Bernard & DeMeulenaere Stephen. (2003). \u201cSustaining Cultural Vitality in a Globalizing World: The Balinese Example.\u201c International Journal for Social Economics. Retrieved April 20, 2012, from http:\/\/www.lietaer.com\/2009\/12\/sustaining-cultural-vitality-in-a-globalizing-world-the-balinese-example\/.<\/p>\n

Macnaught T.J. (1982) \u201cMass Tourism and the Dilemmas of Modernization in Pacific
\nIsland Communities\u201d Annals of Tourism Research 9(3), pp 359-381<\/p>\n

McTaggart W.D. (1980) \u201cTourism and Tradition in Bali\u201d World Development 8, pp 457- 466.<\/p>\n

Mead, M. & Macgregor,F.C. (1977). \u201cLetter From the Field, 1925-1977. Harper and Row, New York.<\/p>\n

Norohna, R. (1979) \u201cParadise Reviewed: Tourism in Bali in Tourism: Passport to
\nDevelopment?\u201d, in de Kadt, E. (Ed.) Perspectives on the Social and Cultural Effects of Tourism in Developing Countries, Oxford University Press, New York, pp 201.<\/p>\n

Picard, M. (1996), \u201cBali: Cultural Tourism and Touristic Culture\u201d, Archipelago Press,
\nSingapore, pg 37.<\/p>\n

Robinson, A. (1995), “Tourism”, Corporate Location, New York . pp. 63-64.<\/p>\n

Simpson, J. A., & Weiner, E. S. (1989). The Oxford English dictionary (2nd ed., Vol. VII). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 306.<\/p>\n

St John , G. (2000) \u201cAlternative Cultural Heterotopia: ConFest as Australia’s Marginal Centre\u201d, PhD Dissertation, School of Sociology, Politics and Anthropology, La Trobe University, Australia, Retrieved April 22, 2012, from:http:\/\/www.confest.org\/thesis\/contents.html.<\/p>\n

Warren, C. (1993), \u201cAdat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State\u201d,
\nOxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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